Index

Aberdeen, South Dakota: trade and service center, 75; commercial legacy of from railroad era, 134; as business headquarters, 206

Agassiz, Alexander: as Copper Range mining executive, philanthropist, 148

Agassiz, Lake: as geologic feature, 19

Agassiz, Louis: naturalist, lake named for, 19; father of Alexander, 148

Agricultural regions: cropland corridor, 19; Corn Belt, 19, 61; transition zones at northeastern and southwestern edges of cropland corridor, 21; Dairy Belt, 61; Hard Spring Wheat Belt, 61

Agriculture: pioneer farms ca. 2870, 36, 55, 61, 111; bonanza farms, 55, 59; landscapes ca. 2920, 60; changes in tractor era, 103, 169; economic importance to region, 174; family farm, 174

Airlines: national pattern of, 88; Twin Cities as regional hub of, 88

Albert Lea, Minnesota: growth of as county-seat trade center, 118; meat-packing industry of, 191

Anaconda, Montana: as copper-smelting center, 185

Apostle Islands: as geologic feature in Lake Superior, 17

Ashland, Wisconsin: as Lake Superior port, 75; decline of iron'mining in tributary area, 131, 133

Austin, Minnesota: as county-seat trade center, 118; meat-packing industry of, 191

Badlands: as geologic feature in semi-arid Great Plains, 24

Bear Paw Mountains: as Montana landmark, 3; as geologic feature, 18

Beaverhead Valley: as early mining area, 37

Belle Fourche, South Dakota: as trade center for irrigated farming area, 129

Belt Mountains: as geologic feature, 18; gold fields of, 39

Beulah, North Dakota: lignite gasification plant at, 181

Big Horn Mountains: as geologic feature, 18

Big Horn River, part of trans-Missouri stream system, 23

Big Snowy Mountains: as geologic feature, 18

Billings, Montana: as pioneer location, 75; rapid growth of, 118, 120, 134; land-use change in auto era, 146; wholesale trade of, 197; as business headquarters, 206

 Bismarck-Mandan, North Dakota: vigorous post-World War II growth of, 118, 120, 134; land-use change in auto era, 146

Black Hills: as geologic feature, 18 Bozeman, Montana: early settlement of and military outpost, 39: as growth center in western Montana valleys, 129

Brainerd, Minnesota: urbanization of neighboring lakes area, 163

Brookings, South Dakota: as university and industrial growth center, 134

Brown and Bigelow Company: early St. Paul industrial park, 185

 Butte, Montana: copper mining and smelting in, 69, 129, 130, 134, 185; as declining wholesale center, 197, 198

Canadian Shield: as geologic feature, 16, 28

Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin: as early industrial water-power site, 69; in contemporary Chippewa Valley urban cluster, 118

Chippewa River: as largest tributary in upper Mississippi River system, 36; as source of water power, 69, 118

Climate: extremes of, 7; gradients across Upper Midwest, 10; and local influence of Lake Superior, 17; chinook winds, 21; possible future change owing to carbon dioxide, 223; in regional culture, 232

Coal fields: in Powder River and Knife River basins, 28; and electric-power generation, 88; early mining for railroads, 181; 2980s strip mining, 181; and gasification, 181

Construction industry: employment in, 192; regional rate of building replacement, 192

Control Data Corporation: in growth of electronics industry, 189

Copper Range: as geologic feature, 17; early landscapes of, 37; production and settlement of, 69, 130, 134; land-use change in auto era, 148

Corps of Engineers, U.S. army: role in urban land-use change, 146; and Missouri River dams, 218

Crazy Mountains: as geologic feature, 18

Dayton's department stores: first enclosed shopping mall, 155; national expansion of, 199

Deadwood, South Dakota: as mining community, 120; employment stability in, 181

Dickinson, North Dakota: oil boom in, 134

Duluth-Superior, Minnesota-Wisconsin: pioneer boom at Duluth, 37, 46; emergence as metropolis, 67; importance of port, 133, 134, 151; land-use changes in auto-era , 151; manufacturing in, 192; wholesale trade in, 197, 198

248

Eau Claire, Wisconsin: early development of, 47, 69; industrial growth of, 118; manufacturing employment in, 184; wholesale trade in, 197

Electric power: transmission lines, grid and energy delivered, 88

Employment: growth in J 929-80, 169; in transportation and communication, 175; in mineral industries, 178; in manufacturing, 182, 189, 191; in construction, wholesaling, 193, 198; in retailing, 197; in services, 203; in government, 217

Entrepreneurship: increased number of business firms, 165; role in job creation, 168; in manufacturing, 184; in retailing, 203; survival and growth of companies, 214; sale and acquisition of companies, 214; and headquarters location, 214; causes of high incidence in Upper Midwest, 214

Escanaba, Michigan: as early timber and ore port, 37; importance in rail era, 75; decline of iron ranges in tributary area, 131, 133

Fairmont, Minnesota: land-use changes in auto era, 139

Fargo-Moorhead, North Dakota-Minnesota: early growth of, 69, 75; emergence of as twin cities, 111; rapid growth of, 118; land-use change in auto era, 146; wholesale trade strength of, 197

Faribault, Minnesota: early development of, 36; diversification of industry in, 69

Fort Benton, Montana: and Missouri river trade, 31

General Mills Corporation: Twin Cities corporate office park, 155; origin of, 184

Glacial drift plains: as geologic feature and agricultural resource, 19, 22

Glacial moraines: as geologic feature and natural resource, 19, 22

Glacier National Park: as tourism economic base in western Montana valleys, 130

Gogebic Iron Range: as geologic feature, 17; opening of mines on, 44; urban centers of, 75; decline and closing of mines on, 131

Government: as employer, 217; federal, 218; state, 218; local, 218; taxes, 221; major expenditures of, 222; role of in quality of life, 222

Grand Forks, North Dakota: early development of, 75; fast growth of, 118; wholesale trade in, 197

Grand Rapids, Minnesota: as southwest center for Mesabi Iron Range, 131

Great Falls, Montana: early development of, 69; volatile population growth of, 130; demise of copper smelting and refining at, 185; wholesale trade in, 197

Great Lakes waterway: completion of Sault Ste. Marie locks, 31; role in early development of Lake Superior cities, 53, 55; role in iron and steel industry development, 131

Green Giant: establishment of canning plants in Minnesota River Valley, 184

Hastings, Minnesota: as early Mississippi River port, 36

Helena, Montana: early gold boom at, 37; slow growth of in rail era, 75; growth of in auto era, 129

Ribbing, Minnesota: as urban center on Mesabi Iron Range, 131

High line: settlement, 49; tributary to Great Falls, 130

Highways: dirt road network, 44; improvements of in 2920s to 1980, 76; growth of traffic, 79; role of system in redistribution of income, 84; role in weakening of hierarchical organization of urban system, 84

Hill, James J.: control of St. Paul and Pacific Railroad by, 44; control of Great Northern and Northern Pacific Railroads by, 50; feud with Soo Line Railroad, 53; role of in development of Great Falls, Montana, 69

Homestake: gold mining district, 120

Honeywell Corporation: early expansion of in 1920s, 185; major expansion of after World War II, 189

Hormel corporation: origin of at Austin, Minnesota, 118; continued operation of at Austin, 191

Hough ton-Hancock, Michigan: as center of sustained urban economy on Copper Range, 148

IBM Corporation: major development of at Rochester, Minnesota, 191

Income: personal, 226; uneven distribution of, 226; intergovernmental transfers of, 226; high variability of in farming areas, 230; savings and capital accumulation, 230

Indians: unceded territory in 1870, 39; U.S. military outposts and agencies in unceded territory, 39; 1870 population of, 39, 41; conflicts of with white settlers on frontier, 39, 41; emergence of western reservations, 39, 49; loss of 1870 territory, 49; large increase in census count, 1970-1980, 94; limited employment on reservations, 206, 218; poverty of, 227

Iron Mountain, Michigan: as mining and service center, 75; decline of mining at, 131, 133

Ironwood, Michigan: as mining and service center, 75; decline of mining at, 131, 133

 Ishpeming, Michigan: as early mining center, 37, 75; decline of mining at, 131

James River plain: as geologic feature and agricultural resource, 19; reached by rail network, 43; importance of to growth of Aberdeen, 75

LaCrosse, Wisconsin: early shipping and manufacturing at, 36; decline of river traffic at, 46; manufacturing at, 184; wholesale trade at, 197

Land use: changes in auto era, 139; in Fairmont, Minnesota, 141; in Billings, 145; in Sioux Falls, 146; in Fargo-Moorhead, 146; in Bismarck-Mandan, 146; on Copper Range, 148; in Duluth-Superior, 151; in urban fringe areas, 162

Lead, South Dakota: as mining community, 120; stability of employment in, 181

Lewis, Sinclair: author of Main Street, written in heyday of small towns in Upper Midwest, 61, 75, 76

Lindbergh, Charles A.: as portent of air-age transportation revolution, 76

Mankato, Minnesota: as river port location, 36; modern growth of, 118; wholesale trade at, 199

Manufacturing: and employment growth, 1929-1980, 182; locations in 1920s, 184; entrepreneurship and innovation, 185, 189, 191; decentralization of, 189, 191; research and development in, 191

Marquette Iron Range: as geologic feature, 17; early development of, 37, 44, 69, 111; decline of production on, 131

Marquette, Michigan: as early ore and timber port, 37; fluctuation in production from tributary iron range, 131, 133

Mason City, Iowa: early development of, 69; legacy from early boom, 134; manufacturing in, 184; wholesale trade in, 197

Mayo Clinic: early expansion of, 69; origin and growth of at Rochester, 118; as major national center, 222

Menomonie Iron Range: as geologic feature, 17; opening of mines on, 44; and urban development, 75; decline and closing of mines on, 131

Merrill, Wisconsin: as upper Wisconsin Valley pulp and paper manufacturing center, 118

Mesabi Iron Range: as geologic feature, 17; rapid development of, 53, 131; fluctuating employment on, 180; taconite industry on, 181

249

Migration: as a global geographic force, 28; into different natural environments, 28; sources of white settlers, 30; recent Asian and Canadian, 93; recent Hispanic, Black, Indian, 94; to and from other U.S. regions, 97, 102; chain from farms and hamlets to metropolitan areas, 102; off-farm, 111

Mineral industries: unstable employment in, 130, 131, 181; employment change in 1929-1980, 178; metallic ores, 179; fuel minerals, 181

Minneapolis, Minnesota. See Twin Cities

Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company (3M): Twin Cities suburban office park, 155; early diversification of, 185; research and development and world-wide expansion of, 189; innovative organization of, 233

Minnesota River: as geologic feature, 19; importance of in location of Mankato, 36

Minot, North Dakota: buffalo bone trade at, 48; early development of, 75; volatile growth of, 118, 120; wholesale trade at, 197

Mississippi River: log and lumber transportation on, 31; decline in packet traffic on , 44; 9-foot channel, 178

Missoula, Montana: early development of, 75; rapid growth of, 129, 134; wholesale trade at, 197

Missouri Coteau: as geologic feature and natural resource, 19; relation of to rail pattern, 53

Missouri River: as steamboat route St. Louis to Ft. Ben-ton, Montana, 31; early military outposts on, 39; big dams on, 218

Moberg, Vilhelm: author, novel on early settlers' hardships, 75

Musselshell River: as part of trans-Missouri stream system, 23

Natural environments: forest region, 13; Canadian Shield, 16; glacial moraines, 16; Lake Superior North Shore, 17; James River plain, 19; Lake Agassiz plain (Red River Valley), 19; Minnesota River Valley, 19; plains flyway, 19; prairie-glacial drift plains, 19; park region, 22

Oil fields: of North Dakota and eastern Montana, 134, 181

Owatonna, Minnesota: rapid growth of, 118, 163; as business headquarters, 206

Pierre, South Dakota: reached by railroad, 44; auto-era growth in, 133 Pillsbury Company: expansion of in 2920s, 185

Pipelines: importance of in transportation system, 88 Population: and regional immigration and rapid growth, 30, 41; advancing frontier, 31, 55, 76; Indian, 39, 94, 134; urbanization of, 44, 45, 66; fluctuating growth rates of, 66, 67, 97, 137; regional emigration and slow growth, 93; seasonal and retirement, 111, 117, 118, 129, 130, 163; projections to year 2000, 225

Porcupine Mountains: as regional landmark, 3

Powder River: as part of trans-Missouri stream system, 23; coal deposits in basin of, 28

Prairie coteau: as geologic feature, 19

Quality of life: attributes of, 231; high ranking of U Upper Midwest metropolitan areas, 231

Railroads: development of regional network of, 33, 41, 44, 50; national network of, 41, 46, 50, 53; branch lines of, 43; in northern forest area, 44; northern transcontinentals, 44, 50; pre-highway dominance of intercity shipping and travel, 54; hierarchical pattern of, 55, 84; mail flow and, 63; selective maintenance and deterioration of, 84; specialization in auto era of, 84

Rainy River: as landmark on Upper Midwest boundary, 3

Rapid City: site of, 120; commercial focus of Black Hills, 129; major growth of, 134; wholesale trade at, 197

Red River: as early transportation route, 34

Red River Valley: as geologic feature and resource, 19; reached by rails, 43; bonanza farms in, 55; importance of to development of Fargo-Moorhead and Grand Forks, 75

Red Wing, Minnesota: as early river port, 36

Retailing: employment in, 197; mail order, 197; and entrepreneurship, 199, 203

Rhinelander, Wisconsin: as center of industry and vacation services, 118

Rochester, Minnesota: early development of, 69; growth of as commercial and medical center, 118; and wholesale and retail trade, 199

Rolvag, O. E.: author of novel describing early settlers' hardships, 75

Roosevelt, Theodore: rancher in North Dakota badlands and presidential role in establishing Superior National Forest, 50

St. Cloud, Minnesota: early development of, 47, 69; manufacturing in, 184; wholesale and retail trade in, 199; as business headquarters, 206

St. Paul, Minnesota. See Twin Cities

Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan: locks completed at, 31;growth of as transportation service center, 75

Sears, Richard: pioneer Minnesota mail-order retailer and co-founder of Sears Roebuck company, 197

Services: employment, 203; range of activities, 203; entrepreneurship and innovation, 206; geographical concentration of, 206

Sioux City, Iowa: initial boom at, 47; rail-era growth, 69

Sioux Falls, South Dakota: early development of, 69;major growth of in highway era, 118; land-use change in auto-era, 146; wholesale trade at, 197; as business headquarters, 206 Still water, Minnesota: as early industrial and shipping center, 36

Sturgis, South Dakota: site of, 120

Transportation-communication industries: employment in, 175; and concentration of job locations, 176; growth of trucking, 179. See Airlines, Great Lakes waterway, Highways, Mississippi River; Missouri River, Pipelines, Railroads

Triangle: region of Montana, 130

Twin Cities: St. Anthony falls, 35; emergence of as regional center, 36; as flour-milling center, 46, 61; as northern transcontinental rail center, 45, 46; as diversified regional metropolis, 61; dependence of on regional economy, 63; as regional transportation hub, 88; increasing dependence of on national and world economy, 91; growth of commuter and satellite rings in, 111, 137; auto-era land-use change in, 152; 1920s building boom in, 152; post-World War II boom in, 155; maturation of suburbs of, 155; and inner-city recycling, 161; growth of transportation-communications employment in, 178; concentration of region's manufacturing, 184, 189; wholesale trade concentration in, 196; retail trade in, 197; as business headquarters, 206

Upper Midwest: geographical definition of, 7; primary region defined by telephone, sports, and airline connections, 7; banking region defined by historical financial interests, federal reserve district, 10; external image of, 13; "Northwest Empire," 41, 76; persistence of region in auto-air age, 88; regional community of interest, 107; "howling wilderness," 233

Urban population clusters: Minnesota lakes, 111; Twin Cities commuter and satellite rings, 111; Twin Citiescore, 111; Chippewa Valley-LaCrosse, 118; Sioux Valley, 118; Southern Minnesota, 118; upper Wisconsin Valley, 118; Great Plains cities, 118, 120; Black Hills, 120, 129; western Montana valleys, 129; Lake Superior mining districts, 130; outlying areas (Corn Belt, Great Plains, mountains, Great Lakes forest), 133

250

Urban system: emergence of system of towns and cities, 34; ubiquity of hamlets and small towns in agricultural regions, 36, 61, 75; early river ports, 36, 69; agricultural trade centers, 36, 69; early mining towns, 37, 45; Great Lakes ore and timber ports, 37; importance of rail intersections, 47; local role of religious communities, 47; locations of state institutions, 47; summary of rail-era location factors, 47; role of amenity and eastern entrepreneurs in townsite selection, 49; differential growth and development, 49, 137; impact of auto era, 84, 88, 107, 137, 163, 199; hierarchy of trade centers in 1920s, 197; weakening hierarchy in 1920s-1980, 198

Veblen, Thorstein: early observations on leisure as an economic activity, 203 Vermilion Iron Range: as geologic feature, 17; opening of mines on, 44, 131

Virginia City, Montana: gold discovery in, 37 Virginia, Minnesota: as Mesabi Range urban center, 131

Wagon roads: Mullan Road, 33; "Mormon express" route, 34; Red River, 34; in northern forest region, 41

Waseca, Minnesota: as center in southern Minnesota urban cluster, 118

Water resources: high-runoff regions, 16, 18

Wausau, Wisconsin: early development of, 69; industrial growth of, 118, 184; wholesale trade at, 197; as business headquarters, 206

Wholesale trade: employment, 193; assembly of farm products, 193; distribution of goods, 193; geographical centralization and decentralization trends 1920s-1980, 198

Wisconsin River: as early source of industrial water power, 47, 69, 118

Yellowstone National Park: part of tourism economic base in western Montana valleys, 130 Yellowstone River: major tributary of Missouri, 23